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Gustavo Gutiérrez

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For other people named Gustavo Gutiérrez, see Gustavo Gutiérrez (disambiguation).
In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Gutiérrez-Merino and the second or maternal family name is Díaz.
The Reverend
Gustavo Gutiérrez
OP
Gutiérrez in 2007
Born
Gustavo Gutiérrez-Merino Díaz

(1928-06-08)8 June 1928
Lima, Peru
Died22 October 2024(2024-10-22) (aged 96)
Lima, Peru
Alma materCatholic University of Leuven, Catholic University of Lyon
Occupation(s)Priest and professor
EmployerUniversity of Notre Dame
Known forLatin American liberation theology,[1] preferential option for the poor
AwardsPacem in Terris Award, Príncipe de Asturias award, Legion of Honor, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Ecclesiastical career
ReligionChristianity
ChurchRoman Catholic Church
Ordained1959
Congregations served
Iglesia Cristo Redentor, Rímac

Gustavo Gutiérrez-Merino Díaz OP (8 June 1928 – 22 October 2024) was a Peruvian philosopher, Catholic theologian, and Dominican priest, regarded as one of the founders of liberation theology, specifically its generative Latin American wing.[1][2] Widely regarded as the "father of liberation theology", his 1971 book A Theology of Liberation was considered pivotal to the formation of liberation theology.[3][4][5] He held the John Cardinal O'Hara Professorship of Theology at the University of Notre Dame and was a visiting professor at many major universities in North America and Europe.[6]

Gutiérrez studied medicine and literature at the National University of San Marcos before deciding to become a priest. At the Theology Faculty of Leuven in Belgium and Lyon, France, he began studying theology.

His theological focus connected salvation and liberation through the preferential option for the poor, with an emphasis on improving the material conditions of the impoverished. Gutierrez proposed that revelation and eschatology have been excessively idealized at the expense of efforts to bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth.[7] In this way, his methodology is often critical of the social and economic injustice he believes to be responsible for poverty in Latin America, and of the Catholic clergy. The central pastoral question of his work is: "How do we convey to the poor that God loves them?"[8]

Early life and education

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Gustavo Gutiérrez was born in Lima on 8 June 1928 to mestizo parentage.[9] He was afflicted with osteomyelitis as an adolescent and was frequently bed-ridden. He had to use a wheelchair from age 12 to 18.[10] He described this time as a formative experience, claiming it instilled the value of hope through prayer and the love of family in friends. Gutiérrez lived in Barranco, and studied at Colegio San Luis; among his close friends during those years was Javier Mariátegui, with whom he later studied medicine. He described this experience as having had a profound impact on his interest in theology.[11]

Gutiérrez initially studied medicine at the National University of San Marcos in Lima in order to become a psychiatrist. He also became involved with Catholic Action, which greatly influenced his later theological arguments.

While in medical school, Gutiérrez realized he wanted to become a priest.[12] He completed his theological studies in the Theology Faculty of Leuven in Belgium and at Lyon in France, where he studied under Henri de Lubac, Yves Congar, Marie Dominique Chenu, Christian Ducoq, and several others.[13] It was also here where Gutiérrez was introduced to the Dominican and Jesuit ideologies, and was influenced by the work of Edward Schillebeeckx, Karl Rahner, Hans Küng, and Johann Baptist Metz.[14] His time in Europe influenced Gutiérrez to discuss the openness of the Church to the contemporary world. He was also influenced by Protestant theologians such as Karl Barth and social scientists such as François Perroux and his idea of development.[15][16] In 1959, Gutiérrez was ordained a priest.[17]

While studying in Europe, Gutiérrez was exposed to other, non-religious thinkers who had a profound impact on his ideology and the eventual formation of Latin American liberation theology.[11] At the Faculty of Theology in Lyon, he studied Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud – on whom he did a philosophy licentiate at the University of Louvrain – and evolutionary theorists traditionally opposed or discouraged by the church.[18] Marx's discussion of class struggle and the material conditions of poverty provided Gutiérrez a framework for understanding socio-economic inequality.[18]

Foundations of liberation theology

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When he returned to Peru in the late 1950s, Gutiérrez began to formulate his understanding of Latin American "reality" – the foundation and driving force of Latin American liberation theology.[19][page needed] He wrote: "I come from a continent in which more than 60% of the population lives in a state of poverty, and 82% of those find themselves in extreme poverty."[20] Gutiérrez focused his efforts on the rediscovery of love thy neighbor as the central axiom of Christian life.[21][22] He contended that the European theology he had studied did not reflect the oppressive material conditions in Latin America. In 2003, Gutiérrez reminisced that his "parishioners in Lima would... teach me volumes about hope in the midst of suffering". The relationship of suffering with Christianity would inspire his book On Job, published in 1986.[11] In his parish ministry, Gutiérrez was at one time pastor of the Iglesia Cristo Redentor (Church of Christ the Redeemer) in Rímac, Peru.[17]

Gutiérrez in 2007

Gutiérrez drafted an outline of his theological proposal at the conference "Towards a Theology of Liberation" during the Second Meeting of Priests and Laity in Chimbote, Peru, between 21 and 25 July 1968.[23] In this proposal, he cited on multiple occasions Vatican II's Gaudium et spes and Paul VI's Populorum progressio. To Gutiérrez, the source of the problems of Latin America was the sin manifested in an unjust social structure. His solution to this problem was to emphasize the dignity of the poor by prioritizing the glory of God present in them.[13] This perspective would be refined over the next three years, until Gutiérrez published A Theology of Liberation in 1971.[24]

Largely as a result of his work, Latin American liberation theology thus emerged as a biblical analysis of poverty. Gutiérrez distinguished two forms of poverty: a "scandalous state" and a "spiritual childhood." He noted that, while the former is abhorred by God, the second is valued. Gutiérrez identified that each form of poverty was present in Latin America, wherein one hungers for bread and for God. It is only through the manifestation of a committed faith that the purposes of God can be manifested to man, regardless of the color or social class under which he was born. Liberation theology insists on prioritizing the gift of life as the supreme manifestation of God.[25]

Gutiérrez asserted that his understanding of poverty as a "scandalous state" is reflected in Luke's beatitude "Blessed are you poor, for the kingdom of God is yours", whereas his interpretation of it as "spiritual childhood" has precedent in Matthew's verse, "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven". He argued that there are forms of poverty beyond economic.[26]

Las Casas Institute and move to America

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In 1974, Gutiérrez founded the Lima branch of the Bartolomé de Las Casas Institute. The Institute, in its mission statement, sought to use theology as a means of addressing contemporary social issues and educating through research, engagement with lawmakers, and collaboration with grassroots organizations.[27]

After facing criticism for his work (including from Cardinal Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne, the Archbishop of Lima), Gutierrez left Peru and joined the Dominican Order near the turn of the millennium,^ taking a teaching post at the University of Notre Dame in the United States.[28][29] There, he held the John Cardinal O'Hara Professorship of Theology. He later taught at the University of Michigan, Harvard, Cambridge, UC Berkeley, and University of Montréal and other schools.[30]

Writings on the option for the poor

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Gutiérrez in 1988

Gutiérrez called for understanding the reality of the poor, and contended that being poor is not simply lacking the economic resources for development.[31] On the contrary, Gutiérrez understood poverty as "a way of living, of thinking, of loving, of praying, of believing and waiting, of spending free time, of fighting for life." He simultaneously emphasized that poverty is the result of flawed social institutions.[31] While many theologians oversimplify poverty's social roots, for Gutiérrez the origin of poverty was considerably more complex. In Latin America, it originates from the times of the conquest and to that is added several political, geographical, and personal factors.[31]

The proclamation of the gospel in the midst of the unjust situation in Latin America leads to a praxis based on principles derived from the word of God. In the article Theology and Poverty, Gutiérrez recalled that this option should lead to three well-defined actions, with the preferential option for the poor unfolding as a fundamental axis of the Christian life on three levels:[31][32]

  1. The announcement and testimony of the reign of God denounces poverty.
  2. The intelligence of faith reveals essential aspects of God and provides a perspective for theological work.
  3. Walking in the footsteps of Jesus, otherwise known as spirituality, is, on the deepest level, the basis on which everything else rests.

The main biblical foundation for this praxis lies in the kenotic incarnation of Christ. To Gutiérrez, the ministry of Christ among the rejected and despised of his time is a clear example for the contemporary Church. Furthermore, "the incarnation is an act of love. Christ becomes man, dies and rises to liberate us, and makes us enjoy freedom. To die and be resurrected with Christ is to overcome death and enter into a new life. The cross and the resurrection seal our freedom." The freedom of Christ is seen by Gutiérrez as the source of spiritual and economic freedom.[33]

Theological reflection on liberation extends beyond a simple discourse lacking in practical and concrete implications. Reflection on the situation of the poor leads to what liberation theologians call "liberating praxis", where they attempt to rectify the process by which the faith of the Church builds the economic, spiritual and intellectual liberation of socially oppressed peoples as fulfillment of the kingdom of God. The liberating praxis, then, has its basis in the love that God manifests for us and in the sense of solidarity and fellowship that should exist in interpersonal relationships among the children of God. Gutiérrez developed several concepts in concert with education activist and philosopher Paulo Freire, whose 1968 seminal work Pedagogy of the Oppressed explored the concept of praxis and a preferential option for the poor.[34][35]

Death

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Gutiérrez died from pneumonia in a convent in Lima on 22 October 2024, at the age of 96.[3][36] On 23 October 2024, a wake service, vespers, and Mass celebrating the memory of Gutiérrez were all held at the Dominican residence in Lima where he resided.[37] On 24 October, Gutiérrez was granted a public funeral at Basilica of the Most Holy Rosary, presided over by Archbishop of Lima Carlos Castillo Mattasoglio.[37][38] Moments before the funeral began, a video broadcast of Pope Francis would air where he paid to tribute to Gutiérrez, describing him as "A man of the Church who knew how to be silent when he had to be silent, who knew how to suffer when it was his turn to suffer, who knew how to carry forward so much apostolic fruit and so much rich theology."[38] The pope's video broadcast had been prepared by the Archbishopric of Lima.[38]

Legacy

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Gutiérrez was an influential figure within 20th century theology, and responses to his work have been polarized. Arthur F. McGovern identifies liberation theology as an anomaly within theologian fields, arguing that theology discourse is generally limited to academic circles. He argues that Gutiérrez's theories, however, have considerable and tangible impacts on the Latin America's socio-economic conditions.[39]

Liberation theology was intended as a call to all believers in Latin America to act on the biblical commitment to the poor. Gutiérrez's message on material and economic conditions serves to place inequality in both religious and political discourse. Gutiérrez's thought has influenced theology, both in Latin America and abroad. This influence can be observed from the evangelical proposal of the "integral mission" developed years after the origin of liberation,[40] to the development of social ministries within the evangelical churches in the last decades.[41]

Among his most prominent followers are Hugo Echegaray and Luis Felipe Zegarra Russo. His friends include the German theologian Gerhard Ludwig Müller, the former Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. On the subject of Gutiérrez's thought, of which he was a student, Müller stated: "The theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez, how it is considered, is orthodox because it is orthopractic and teaches us the correct Christian way of acting, since it derives from authentic faith."[42] On Gutiérrez's 90th birthday, in 2018, Pope Francis thanked him for his contributions "to the church and humanity through your theological service and your preferential love for the poor and discarded of society."[43] While Gutiérrez's positions were never censored by the Church, he had been asked to modify some of his propositions.[44]

Gutiérrez also took pains to prevent his theology from being drawn into the wider network of controversial stances adopted by some of his colleagues. For example, once in the 1970s in Córdoba, Argentina, he refused to begin his lecture until Father Jerónimo Podestá, a fellow liberation theologian who argued for the right of priests to marry, left the room.[45]

Criticisms

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In 1984, the Holy See, under Pope John Paul II, criticized aspects of liberation theology, taking particular issue with its use of Marxist economic theory. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger asked Peruvian bishops to examine Gutiérrez's writings, voicing concerns that Gutiérrez's arguments embodied a concerning "idealization of faith".[46] As a result, Gutiérrez and liberation theology were the subjects of 36-page Vatican report, which declared Marxism to be incompatible with Catholic teachings.[18]

According to Arthur F. McGovern, assessing the movement and its critics is complicated by the fact that it became the subject of popular controversy outside of theological and academic circles, including stories and advertisements in the popular press that evoked passionate responses by identifying liberation theology with Communism and fear of radicalism in Latin American politics.[47]

Accolades

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Gutiérrez was a member of the Peruvian Academy of Language. In 1993, he was awarded the Legion of Honor by the French government for his tireless work. In 2000, Brown University awarded Gutiérrez an honorary Doctor of Divinity.[48] In 2002, Gutiérrez was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and, in 2003, he received the Príncipe de Asturias award. In 2014, he was awarded the Joseph B. and Toby Gittler Prize from Brandeis University.[49] In 2016, he received the Pacem in Terris Award from St. Ambrose University.[50]

Selected works

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  • On the Side of the Poor: The Theology of Liberation. Co-authored with Cardinal Gerhard Ludwig Müller. Orbis Books, 2015: ISBN 978-1626981157[51]
  • In the Company of the Poor: conversations between Dr. Paul Farmer and Fr. Gustavo Gutiérrez. Ed. Michael Griffin and Jennie Weiss Block. Orbis Books, 2013: ISBN 978-1626980501[52]
  • Las Casas: In Search of the Poor of Jesus Christ, trans. Robert R. Barr (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993). Originally published as En busca de los pobres de Jesucristo: El pensamiento de Bartolomé de las Casas (Lima: CEP, 1992).[53]
  • The God of Life, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991). Originally published as El Dios de la vida (Lima: CEP, 1989).[54]
  • On Job: God-Talk and the Suffering of the Innocent, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1987). Originally published as Hablar de Dios desde el sufrimiento del inocente (Lima: CEP, 1986).[55]
  • The Truth Shall Make You Free: Confrontations, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1990). Originally published as La verdad los hará libres: Confrontaciones (Lima: CEP, 1986).[56]
  • We Drink from Our Own Wells: The Spiritual Journey of a People, 20th anniversary ed., trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll: Orbis, 2003; 1st ed., Maryknoll: Orbis, 1984). Originally published as Beber en su propio pozo: En el itinerario espiritual de un pueblo (Lima: CEP, 1983).[57]
  • A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation, 15th anniversary ed., trans. Caridad Inda and John Eagleson (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988; 1st ed., Maryknoll: Orbis, 1973). Originally published as Teología de la liberación: Perspectivas (Lima: CEP, 1971).[58]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Løland, Ole Jakob (July 2021). Usarski, Frank (ed.). "The Solved Conflict: Pope Francis and Liberation Theology" (PDF). International Journal of Latin American Religions. 5 (2). Berlin: Springer Nature: 287–314. doi:10.1007/s41603-021-00137-3. eISSN 2509-9965. ISSN 2509-9957.
  2. ^ Cornell, George W. (6 August 1988). "Founder of liberation theology deals with acclaim and criticism". Lawrence Journal-World. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  3. ^ a b "Peruvian theologian the Rev. Gustavo Gutiérrez, father of influential liberation theology, has died". Associated Press. 23 October 2024. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  4. ^ "Gustavo Gutiérrez, 'father of liberation theology,' dies at 96". Catholic News Agency. 23 October 2024. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  5. ^ Brown, Dennis (23 October 2024). "In memoriam: Rev. Gustavo Gutiérrez, O.P., renowned Notre Dame theologian, father of 'liberation theology'". Notre Dame News. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  6. ^ "Gustavo Gutierrez, O.P." Department of Theology: People. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  7. ^ Müller, Gerhard. ""La teología de la liberación hoy"". In Gutiérrez (ed.). Iglesia pobre y para los pobres. Lima.
  8. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1995). Hablar de Dios desde el sufrimiento del inocente. Una reflexión de el libro de Job. Lima: Instituto Bartolome de Las Casas.
  9. ^ Humphrey, Kimberly (2011). "Gustavo Gutierrez's Liberation Theology". Denison Journal of Religion. 10. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  10. ^ Hartnett, Daniel (3 February 2003). "Remembering the Poor: An Interview with Gustavo Gutiérrez". America Magazine. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  11. ^ a b c Hartnett, Daniel (3 February 2003). "Remembering the Poor: An Interview With Gustavo Gutiérrez". americanmagazine.org. America Magazine. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  12. ^ "Gustavo Gutierrez biography (spanish)". Gustavo Gutiérrez (1928). Steven Casadont. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
  13. ^ a b Botella Cubells, Vicente (8 de noviembre de 2011)). «Gustavo Gutiérrez, padre de la Teología de la Liberación». Facultad de Teología. Valencia.
  14. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (2001) "Quehacer teológico y experiencia eclesial"; J.J.Tamayo y J.Bosch, eds., Panorama de la Teología Latinoamericana, Estella.
  15. ^ Gorringe, Timothy (12 August 1999), "Theology and Human Liberation", Karl Barth, Oxford University Press, pp. 268–290, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198752462.003.0007, ISBN 9780198752462, archived from the original on 20 July 2018, retrieved 20 July 2018
  16. ^ Sagasti, Francisco R.; Alcalde, Gonzalo (1999). Development Cooperation in a Fractured Global Order: An Arduous Transition. IDRC. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-88936-889-7.
  17. ^ a b "Gustavo Gutiérrez". www.britannica.com. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  18. ^ a b c Klabier, Jeffery (July 1989). "Prophets and Populists: Liberation Theology, 1968-1988". The Americas. 46 (1): 1–5. doi:10.2307/1007391. JSTOR 1007391. S2CID 147016879.
  19. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1996). Nickoloff, James B. (ed.). Essential writings. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0800634098.
  20. ^ Gutierrez, Gustavo (1991). "Juan de la Cruz desde America Latina". Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  21. ^ Hahnenberg, Edward P. (1 July 2010). Awakening Vocation: A Theology of Christian Call. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814657331.
  22. ^ "Gutiérrez highlights Pope's 'preferential option for the poor'". The Observer. 26 September 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  23. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1968) "Hacia una teología de la liberación. Consultado el 23 de julio de 2014.
  24. ^ "R.I.P. Gustavo Gutiérrez, the prophet who revolutionized Catholic theology for the poor". America Magazine. 23 October 2024. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  25. ^ "Gustavo Gutierrez and the preferential option for the poor". National Catholic Reporter. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  26. ^ Gagliarducci, Andrea. "Fr Gustavo Gutierrez: the poor are the starting point of liberation theology". catholicnewagency.com. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
  27. ^ "Las Casas Institute". Archived from the original on 13 October 2018. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  28. ^ "Gustavo Gutiérrez, father of liberation theology, dead at 96". 23 October 2024. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  29. ^ Kennedy, Philip (30 January 2010). Twentieth-Century Theologians: A New Introduction to Modern Christian Thought. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85771-760-3.
  30. ^ "Bigorafía de Gustavo Guitiérrez". unmsm.edu. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  31. ^ a b c d "A THEOLOGY OF LIBERATION" (PDF). Orbis Books. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  32. ^ "A Hermeneutic of Hope" (PDF). Vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  33. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo. Essential Writings. Fortress Press. p. 300. ISBN 9781451410242.
  34. ^ Smith, Christian."The Emergence of Liberation Theology". University of Chicago Press, 1989
  35. ^ Freire, Paulo; Macedo, Donaldo (1 September 2000). Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 30th Anniversary Edition. Translated by Ramos, Myra Bergman (30th Anniversary ed.). Continuum. ISBN 9780826412768.
  36. ^ Friskics-Warren, Bill (23 October 2024). "Gustavo Gutiérrez, Father of Liberation Theology, Dies at 96". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  37. ^ a b Tinner-Williams, Nate (24 October 2024). "Fr Gustavo Gutiérrez, father of liberation theology, dead at 96". Black Catholic Messenger. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  38. ^ a b c Bastante, Jesús (24 October 2024). "Francisco recuerda a Gustavo Gutiérrez: "Un grande, un hombre de Iglesia, que supo sufrir cuando le tocó sufrir"" (in Spanish). Religion Digital. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  39. ^ Duncan, William (1995). "The Political Philosophy of Gustavo Gutiérrez". Graduate Faculty of University of Texas. Retrieved 20 November 2019.[page needed]
  40. ^ "Latin America Consultation on Integral Mission | Micah Network". www.micahnetwork.org. Archived from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  41. ^ "Latin America – World Council of Churches". www.oikoumene.org. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  42. ^ Vatican Insider: "Un teologo della liberazione al Santo Ufficio?" 15 October 2011
  43. ^ "Francis wishes 'father of liberation theology' on 90th birthday". La Croix International. 8 June 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  44. ^ Kirchgaessner, Stephanie; Watts, Jonathan (11 May 2015). "Catholic church warms to liberation theology as founder heads to Vatican". the Guardian. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  45. ^ Luro, Clelia (12 September 2013). "Carta abierta a Gustavo Gutiérrez". atrio.org. Atrio. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  46. ^ "Gustavo Gutiérrez, father of liberation theology, dead at 96". Angelus News. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  47. ^ McGovern, Arthur F. (1989). Liberation Theology and its Critics: Toward an Assessment. Wipf & Stock. p. ix.
  48. ^ "Honorary Degrees". Corporation | Brown University. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
  49. ^ "Gustavo Gutiérrez". www.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
  50. ^ "Pacem in Terris Past Recipients". Catholic Diocese of Davenport. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  51. ^ "On the Side of the Poor: The Theology of Liberation". Good Reads. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  52. ^ "Gutierrez and Farmer's 'In the Company of the Poor'". NCR Online.org. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  53. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1993). Las Casas: In Search of the Poor of Jesus Christ. Orbis Books. ISBN 978-0-88344-838-0. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  54. ^ "The God of Life". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  55. ^ "On Job: God-Talk and the Suffering of the Innocent". Good Reads. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  56. ^ Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1990). The Truth Shall Make You Free. Orbis Books. ISBN 978-0-88344-679-9. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  57. ^ "We Drink from Our Own Wells: The Spiritual Journey Of A People". Good Reads. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  58. ^ Maduro, Otto (2008). "Liberation Theology". In Darity, William A. Jr. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 434–437. ISBN 978-0-02-866117-9. Retrieved 31 March 2022 – via Encyclopedia.com.

Further reading

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  • Christian Smith (2002). "Las Casas as Theological Counteroffensive: An Interpretation of Gustavo Gutiérrez's Las Casas: In Search of the Poor of Jesus Christ". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 41: 69–73. doi:10.1111/1468-5906.00100.
  • Alexander Nava (2001). The Mystical and Prophetic Thought of Simone Weil and Gustavo Gutiérrez: Reflections on the Mystery and Hiddenness of God. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-5177-1.
  • Robert McAfee Brown (1980). Gustavo Gutierrez: Makers of Contemporary Theology. Atlanta: John Knox Press. ISBN 0-8042-0651-1.
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